Walter Pfaller (Innsbruck) and Paul Jennings (Amsterdam)
..Pfaller info ..Jennings info2025. A work in progress. A book project the authors have been working on for well over a decade. They are not fast, but hopefully you will find it interesting and thought provoking. Thank you for making the effort. Note this is a free book, but we do have costs for web hosting etc. If you like this book and want to support us with a small donation then follow this link: - DONATE
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Forward by Paul Jennings 2024, Amsterdam
Earth is composed of a myriad of different life forms, all trading chemical inputs and outputs with each other in a highly sophisticated complex network. Living things are composed of one or more cells, which unfathomably originated from a single common ancestor. A commonality of living cells is their ability to continuously modify their chemical surroundings. As a species, humans excel in this ability to the extent that humans now hold all life under their direct governance. The ape becomes life’s unlikely king.
What the hell could go wrong ?
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In April 1815, the largest volcanic eruption during historic times occurred on the island of Sumbava in the Dutch East Indies. Roughly 200 cubic kilometres of lava and hot particulate matter was ejected during the eruption of mount Tambora. The consequence for our planet was a severe change of the global weather. The year 1816 entered history as the year without summer. During this wet and cold summer, a group of eccentric British upper-class people resided with George Gordon Noel Byron (Lord Byron) at Villa Diodati, a mansion he rented on the shore of Lake Geneva in Switzerland. Annoyed by the bad weather which prevented excursions into the alpine surrounding, Byron suggested to his guests to write up a spine-chilling story each. This idea had consequences for world literature. "The vampyre" written by Byron's friend and personal physician John Polidori became the inspiration for the famous Dracula novel later written by the Irishman Bram Stoker (Dublin 1897). The most influential story, however, was conceived by Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, who visited Byron's villa together with her Stepsister Claire Clairmont and her lover and later husband Percy Bysshe Shelly. Percy may have inadvertently influenced the contents of Mary's novel, as he was a student of the Scottish physician James Lind. Lind was influenced by Galvani’s work on frog leg experiments like many others at the beginning of the 19th century. These activities were preceded with the invention of the first battery by Alessandro Volta. His batteries could generate electrostatic potential differences of up to 100 Volts, which was sufficient to cause muscle twitches in dead animals and humans. These observations might have triggered the imagination that electricity could be a crucial factor to resurrect the function of animal and human tissues and in the end even whole bodies. Most influential in this context were the experiments of Galvani’s nephew Giovanni Aldini, who publicly zapped the heads of decapitated criminals in an attempt to reanimate them. He imagined this could be used to resuscitate people who had drowned or suffocated and possibly to help the insane. These and other developments of biological sciences at those times have definitely influenced the origin of Mary Shelley´s story: “Frankenstein, or the modern Prometheus”. Impressed by the work Byron persuaded Mary to expand her short story to a novel and publish it.
Although the novel "Frankenstein, or the modern Prometheus" was not well accepted when published, it gained remarkable popularity as the hubris of science in form of the human derived monster, who became a murderer, much later via the stage play and specifically by the 1931 film where Boris Karloff was portraying the monster and the 1994 film with Robert de Niro as the creature. In 2015, a consortium of 82 international literature critics chose Mary Shelley's novel as one of the best British novels. Meanwhile, both the novel and the films are utilised to depict the danger which potentially may arise from certain scientific approaches.
An article in Surgical Neurology International 2013 proposed recreating Aldini’s experiments with decapitated human heads. The authors of “HEAVEN (HEad Anastomosis VENture): The Frankenstein effect,” noted that Aldini ultimately aimed to transplant a human head, using electricity to spark it back into awareness. The authors wrote, “On the whole, in the face of clear commitment, HEAVEN could bear fruit within a couple of years,” they write. Many scientists have called the project unfeasible and unethical, but two of the co-authors recently announced to the media that they had performed a head transplant on a human corpse and soon plan to publish the details. Although this activity seems to be an outlier and the general scientific consensus is that “the mad scientist playing God the creator will cause the entire human species to suffer eternal punishment for their trespasses and hubris“. “Mary Shelley, Frankenstein, and The Dark Side of Medical Science,” a 2014 essay published in the charmingly incongruous Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association, ticks off a diverse list of recent experiments that have drawn the “Franken-” label, to name but a few: the maintenance of viable small pox, the cloning of Dolly the sheep, the engineering of a highly lethal H5N1 bird influenza that could more easily infect mammals, the synthesizing of an entire bacterial genome, and genetic engineering of the human genome using CRISPR-CAS9. Other triggers of Frankenstein-ish fears have included in vitro fertilization, transplantation of animal organs into humans, and tomatoes endowed with genes from fish to make them freeze-tolerant. Craig Venter, a pioneer in genomics based in San Diego, California, has been called a Frankenstein for his effort to create cells with synthetic DNA and generate the smallest possible genomes. Still, he is proposed to be a fan of Shelley’s tale. “I think she’s had more influence with that one book than most authors in history,” says Venter, who owns a first edition. “It affects a lot of people’s thinking and fear because it represents this fundamental of ‘You don’t mess with Mother Nature and you don’t mess with life because God will strike you down.’” “Obviously, I don’t buy into that theme,” he adds.
The Frankenstein myth endures, he says, because “fear is easy to sell”—even when unwarranted. “Most people have a fear of what they don’t understand,” he says. “Synthetic cells are pretty complicated and putting a new gene into corn sounds scary.” But by throwing around labels like Frankenfood and Frankencells to rally the public against potentially valuable innovations, he says, the “fear-based community will potentially do more damage to humanity than the things they fear.” Unlike Frankenstein, who initially didn’t consider how his work might go wrong, Venter says he recognises that editing and rewriting genomes could “contaminate the world” and cause unintended harm. “I think we need to be very smart about when we do it and how we do it,” he says. He thinks Shelley “would highly appreciate” his work. Henk van den Belt, a philosopher and ethicist at Wageningen University (WUR) in the Netherlands, who wrote a paper about Frankenstein and synthetic biology, applauds Venter for fighting back against the Frankenslur. “Very often scientists are afraid to take this position, but I think it’s better to be defiant,” Van den Belt says.
We write this book not to create any kind of angst but simply to inform the scientific community and the public as a whole of both the opportunities and the potential dangers of the utilisation and further manipulation of human cells in culture.
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Saoirse by AMcJ
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Dr. Frankenstein’s obsession with life and electricity led to his monstrous creation. He collected various body parts from different corpses assembled them and zapped it with a high powered electrical source. The experiment was successful and the bastardised concoction of once dead tissues was reanimated via this external energy into a conscious living being. One might have thought that Dr. Frankenstein would have been exhilarated by this success and might even have exclaimed in excitement and equal horror “its alive”. However, the phrase ‘its alive’ does not actually appear in the original text of Mary Shelly’s Frankenstein but was an addition in the 1931 film directed by James Whale, where the doctor was portrayed by Colin Clive. Instead in Shelly’s original, Frankenstein, far from being euphoric, was confronted with a sense of nihilism and regret on the success of his experiment. He stated: "I had worked hard for nearly two years, for the sole purpose of infusing life into an inanimate body. For this, I had deprived myself of rest and health. I had desired it with an ardour that far exceeded moderation; but now that I had finished, the beauty of the dream vanished, and breathless horror and disgust filled my heart." The story proceeds to its tragic end.
Shelly’s Frankenstein was most certainly inspired by contemporary experiments where dead animals were shown to twitch when exposed to electrical impulses, a short lived scientific field called Galvanism (named after the uncle and nephew pair). However, her humanisation of the monster and its demonisation by society was a reflection on society’s stubbornness and reluctance to accept progressive novel scientific propositions. In Shelly’s story science itself was the victim. The word Frankenstein today is often meant as a warning of scientific endeavours not being quite thought through to its potential destructive end. The pursuit of knowledge after all has no particular aim, except to discover and demonstrate new possibilities.
While Shelly’s story is unique, the imagination and pursuit of immortality is a common thread in humanity. All religions are based to some extent on immortality or everlasting life. Frankenstein however made this possibility feel sordid and unnatural. Resurrection and immortality are themes that have been part of human cultures since stories and myths began. Most human cultures have embedded stories with references to reincarnation or the undead, from the Mesopotamian Ishtar, the Norse Draugr, Judaisms Golem, the Celts Aos Si, Jesus Christs resurrection, ghosts fairies etc etc. Tir nan Og is the land of the forever young in Irish culture. A common theme in folklore and science fiction is of immortality, youth or endless energy and strength. Humans find the concept of mortality limiting and are enthralled with the concept of eternal youth and immortality. What is unique about Shelly’s retelling is that a scientist could purposefully reincarnate dead material into a living thinking conscious being. This being might not be that pleased by its creation and existence, as was the case for Frankenstein’s monster, mirrored in humanities inability to accept mortality.
While the story of Frankenstein’s monster was inspired by scientific endeavours, the ability to reanimate life from death remains science fiction. The ability to even preserve human life to its full potential length remains a challenge of modern medicine. Certain rare cases of people living well into their 11th decade exist, but we do not know the reasons. Undoubtedly genetics, lifestyle and a lot of luck (i.e. avoiding pathogens and buses) are part of it. But we have no formula for this and still do not know how to balance nutrition, exercise, psychological stresses and counter environmental exposures of toxic chemicals. What we do know is that average life spans are increasing at pace, most likely because civilisation had brought ever denser populations together causing a significant decrease in natural life span through combinations of over-physical exertion, rapid spread of infections, malnutrition and exposure to pollutants. Scientific progress is eventually beginning to reverse this trend through improved child mortality, antimicrobials, vaccination, decreased physical intensive employment, decreased occupational chemical exposures and improved nutrition. The human population is currently in an exponential growth with over 8 billion people. This is estimated to be 10 % of the total amount of people that have ever lived. As knowledge about human biology, symbiotic organisms and pathogenic organisms increase, we will inevitably further increase life expectancy. How far can we go ? Who knows. Maybe one day we will indeed reach immortality, but we have a lot to learn before that.
A key question to these endeavours is - What is life ? Thousands of years of philosophy have been spent on this topic, but mostly on what it is to be human and what differentiates humans from other forms of life. René Descartes phrased “Cogito, ergo sum” - I think therefore I am. This is a limitation of our own neural networks. We are alive therefore life must ponder that life exists. Actually, humans while quite sophisticated organisms are not very biologically unique at all. Scientifically speaking, life is the ability to sustain a set of chemical processes in a unit that can replicate itself. This unit is called a cell. While certain components of this unit existed before the cell existed, the emergence of the cell unit allowed a more controlled replication and evolution of these components providing a continuation of useful traits. While awesome, amazing and everything, once that first cell existed, which actually is not that improbable, everything else was just time and probability. The first common cell of nowadays cells is sometimes referred to as LUCA, the Last Universal Common Ancestor. This cell is old. Very old. In the region of 3.8 billion years old. New research even suggests it might be a tad older than that and that ancient viruses may have coerced its components. The earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago. The first millions years or so the earth’s crust was in molten state, incompatible with life. It eventually calmed and stabilised about 0.5 billion years after its birth providing the elements necessary for life to begin, if it desired. It did and the emergence of life was fast. This original cell, was similar to modern day bacteria. Evolutionary processes and diversification split life in two branches the Archaea and the Procaryotes. These two branches lived separate but competing existences for a few billion years, and then fused to create the first hybrid cell we term eukaryote. Single cell eukaryotes with the combined tricks of both life’s branches emerged as strong survivalists and eventually led to the emergence of multicellular life forms the animal, plant and fungal kingdoms.
How can we possibly know these things that existed before humans ever existed. Our species, Homo Sapiens have only been around for a few hundred thousand years after all. While as mentioned, biologically speaking there is nothing too unique about Sapiens, except its trait of unyielding curiosity. We know these things because we can observe today what was once before. All living things are made of cells and all life today represents an unbroken chain of cellular life and evolution over an enormous period of time, circa 4 billion years.
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In the quiet but ambitious laboratories of the seventeenth century, a world invisible to the naked eye was slowly being unveiled. Through the lenses of primitive microscopes, early scientists began to realise that life itself was made up of smaller, unknown entities, changing the way humanity understood the living world forever. Robert Hooke, the English polymath, was one of the first to peer through these rudimentary microscopes and glimpse the unseen. In 1665, his discovery of what he called 'cells' small, box-like structures in thin slices of cork, marked a pivotal moment. Although these structures were not alive, his observation set the stage for others to take the next steps.
While Hookes contribution was monumental, it was the Delft man, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek that truly brought cells to our attention. Using microscopes of his own making, van Leeuwenhoek observed living cells in pond water, blood, semen and dental plaque. He described these tiny animalcules (diertjes) that were present in every corner of our environment. His work was a revelation: life was far more intricate and teeming with activity than anyone had previously imagined.
Despite these groundbreaking discoveries, it would take centuries for the scientific community to fully grasp the importance of cells. The cell theory, one of biologys fundamental tenets, was solidified in the nineteenth century. German scientists Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden proposed that all living things were composed of cells, a revolutionary idea at the time. Yet, this was just the beginning of an even deeper realisation: cells were not simply the building blocks of life—they were life itself. Rudolf Virchow, a prominent figure in this journey, made a bold declaration in 1855 that would echo through the ages: 'Omnis cellula e cellula,' meaning all cells arise from pre-existing cells. This statement laid the foundation for modern biology, reinforcing the idea that life is a continuous cycle, passed on through these microscopic units. What had started as an abstract concept now became a pillar of biological understanding. These realisations not only changed the way scientists viewed life, but they also opened doors to questions that had never been considered. What, exactly, was happening inside these cells? How did they function, grow, and divide? The answers to these questions would require advancements in technology, more refined microscopes, and, most importantly, the tenacity of scientists willing to challenge old paradigms.
As the scientific community delved deeper, it became clear that cells were far from simple. They were complex, self-contained worlds with their own systems of organisation and communication. Nuclei, mitochondria, endoplasmatic reticulm and other organelles were discovered, each playing specific roles in keeping the cell alive. This newfound complexity only added to the mystery and wonder surrounding these tiny units of life. The discovery of cells was not just a breakthrough in biology; it marked the beginning of a new way of thinking about life itself. From here, humanity would embark on a journey to understand how these units formed the intricate tapestry of living organisms, a journey that continues to this day.
With the discovery of cells, science had taken a monumental leap in understanding the structure of life, but the journey was far from over. As scientists continued to peer deeper into the microscopic world, a new question began to take shape: what caused diseases? For centuries, illness had been attributed to imbalances in bodily humors or even supernatural forces, but the emerging study of microorganisms would challenge that narrative.
In the nineteenth century, French scientist Louis Pasteur made one of the most significant contributions to our understanding of disease through his germ theory. Pasteur demonstrated that microorganisms, invisible to the naked eye, were responsible for fermentation and spoilage, and more importantly, that they could cause infections. His experiments in the 1850s and 1860s, including his work on vaccines for rabies and anthrax, proved that germs, bacteria and viruses, were the true culprits behind many diseases. This revelation was a game changer, leading to improved hygiene, sterilisation practices, and the eventual development of vaccines. It set the stage for another pivotal figure in medicine: Alexander Fleming. In 1928, Fleming, a Scottish bacteriologist, made a chance discovery that would change the course of medicine forever. While studying bacteria in his laboratory, he noticed that a mold called Penicillium notatum had killed off the surrounding bacteria in one of his petri dishes. From this simple observation, Fleming had stumbled upon penicillin, the worlds first antibiotic. This discovery would go on to save countless lives, marking the beginning of a new era in treating infectious diseases.
Together, the discoveries of Pasteur and Fleming ushered in a new era where humanity finally had the tools to not only understand the microscopic
world but to combat its invisible dangers. What had once been mysterious forces of disease became conquerable adversaries. And with the advent of
antibiotics, a new frontier in medicine was born—one where life itself, down to its smallest inhabitants, could be understood, manipulated, and
ultimately saved. In the hands of scientists, the microscopic world was no longer a hidden realm of fear but a battlefield where knowledge
triumphed over nature's unseen enemies.
While the discovery of cells and germ theory advanced our understanding of life and disease, the fight against infectious diseases truly gained momentum with the work of Edward Jenner.
In 1796, Jenner made a groundbreaking observation: milkmaids who contracted cowpox, a mild disease, seemed to be immune to the far more deadly smallpox.
Acting on this insight, Jenner inoculated a young boy with material from a cowpox sore, and when the boy was later exposed to smallpox, he remained unharmed.
This was the birth of the first vaccine, a method that used the bodys own immune system to create protection against disease.
Jenners work laid the foundation for modern immunology and vaccination, and his success against smallpox became one of humanity’s greatest triumphs.
Over a century later, vaccination would become one of the cornerstones of modern medicine, working hand in hand with the discoveries of Pasteur and Fleming to offer a comprehensive approach to disease prevention and treatment.
Jenners pioneering work on vaccination laid the foundation for modern immunology, and its impact is felt even today. The principles he discovered over two centuries ago have continued to evolve, giving rise to vaccines for diseases like polio, measles, and, most recently, COVID-19.
The COVID-19 pandemic, which emerged in late 2019, reminded the world of the ongoing importance of vaccines in combating infectious diseases.
In a global effort, scientists worked at an unprecedented pace to develop vaccines against the novel coronavirus. The mRNA vaccines, such as those produced by Astrazeneca, BioNTech and Moderna, represent a major leap forward in vaccine technology. Unlike Jenners cowpox-based method, these vaccines work by instructing cells to produce a protein that triggers an immune response, offering a more precise and flexible approach to immunisation.
Just as Jenners smallpox vaccine became a symbol of hope in the battle against disease, the rapid development of COVID-19 vaccines has demonstrated the power of scientific collaboration and innovation. Today, we stand on the shoulders of giants like Jenner, Pasteur, and Fleming, using their foundational discoveries to face new challenges and protect future generations.
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The seventeenth century marked the beginning of a revolution in biological sciences, fueled by the development of microscopes and the curiosity of natural philosophers. Among these breakthroughs, one of the most fundamental and transformative discoveries was the realisation that all living organisms are composed of cells. This chapter will explore the historical milestones in the discovery of cell theory and its far-reaching implications for modern science, medicine, and public health, including the development of sterilisation techniques in surgery and the implementation of vaccination programs.
The concept of the cell as the basic unit of life took shape during the mid-seventeenth century, thanks in large part to the pioneering work of Robert Hooke. Although Hooke termed the phrase "cells" he did not yet fully grasp their biological significance. He had taken the first step toward a theory that would later reshape our understanding of life itself. It was the Dutch (Delft) man Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, whos family were fabric traders who really stamped the idea that micrscopic living things were everywhere. He itterated his microspopes to see these tiny life forms and even documented the cells fom his own blood, sputum and sperm. In the 1830s, two German scientists, Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, expanded on these earlier discoveries. Schleiden, a botanist, concluded that plants were made entirely of cells, while Schwann, a zoologist, demonstrated that animals were also composed of cells. Together, they laid the foundation of cell theory, proposing that all living organisms, both plant and animal, are composed of cells. By the mid-nineteenth century, the German physician Rudolf Virchow advanced the theory further by asserting that all cells arise from pre-existing cells, encapsulating the fundamental principle of cell division.
The application of cell theory extended far beyond the classification of plants and animals. As understanding of cells deepened, so did the recognition that cells could be damaged or destroyed by external agents, including bacteria and viruses. This realisation had profound implications for the field of medicine, particularly surgery, where infections were rampant, often leading to death following otherwise routine procedures. One of the key figures in combating surgical infections was Joseph Lister, a British surgeon who is widely credited with introducing antiseptic techniques in the mid-nineteenth century. Listers work was heavily influenced by the germ theory of disease, proposed by Louis Pasteur, which postulated that microorganisms were responsible for infections. Recognising that these germs could enter the body through surgical wounds, Lister began to sterilise surgical instruments and clean wounds with carbolic acid, drastically reducing the incidence of post-operative infections. His work paved the way for modern aseptic techniques, which are now standard in surgical procedures around the world. Much later on in the mid 1970s the discovery of an immunotoxic compound (Cyclosporine A) produced by a fungus found in a soil sample in Norway paved the way for immuosupressive therapy and transplanation medicine.
The practice of sterilisation and aseptic surgery, directly linked to the understanding of harmful microorganisms at the cellular level, revolutionised medicine and significantly improved patient outcomes. In essence, cell theory not only helped explain the structure and function of organisms but also led to life-saving medical practices that continue to be refined today.
Another monumental application of cell theory was in the development of vaccination programs, a practice that directly impacted public health on a global scale. Vaccination predates the formal discovery of cells, with the first crude inoculations occurring in China and India as early as the sixteenth century. However, it was not until the work of Edward Jenner in 1796 that vaccination gained widespread recognition. Jenner famously used cowpox to create immunity against smallpox, a devastating disease that ravaged populations for centuries. Jenners work set the stage for the eventual global eradication of smallpox, but the connection to cell theory became more apparent in the twentieth century as scientists gained deeper insight into how vaccines work at the cellular level. Vaccines stimulate the bodys immune response by introducing a weakened or inactivated form of a pathogen, prompting immune cells to recognise and remember molecular patterns on the virus coat and to mount a strong multifaced defense when seen again. The understanding of cellular immunity transformed the way vaccines were developed and administered.
The success of vaccination programs, particularly the eradication of smallpox by the World Health Organisation in 1979, demonstrated the power of combining a knowledge of cellular biology with public health initiatives. Vaccines continue to be one of the most effective tools for controlling infectious diseases, from polio to the recent development of mRNA vaccines for COVID-19. These advancements, rooted in cell theory, highlight the critical role that understanding cells plays in combating disease on a global scale.
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Cells are the foundation of all life. Whether its a single-celled bacterium or the intricate structure of large multicellular animals like ourselves, everything living is composed of these tiny, yet incredibly powerful, units. Understanding cells offers insight into how life functions at its most basic level. At its core, a cell operates much like a highly organised and efficient tiny factory, capable of converting nutrients into energy, repairing itself, and reproducing when necessary. To carry out these functions, a cell contains various components that work together to keep it alive. The very definition of life is that of a viable cell. A cell carries a set of instructions, its DNA, that directs these processes, ensuring that everything runs smoothly and in a tightly controlled fashion. The cell is enclosed by a membrane, which acts as a barrier to protect its contents and regulate what enters and exits.
Cells can be of two distict types: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria, are structurally simpler than eukaryotes. They lack a nucleus and other complex structures. In contrast, eukaryotic cells, which make up plants, animals, and fungi, are more complex, containing distinct organelles that perform specific functions. Bacteria are an excellent example of prokaryotic life. They have been here for billions of years, long before humans knew they existed. It wasnt until 1683 that Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, using a microscope of his own design, observed bacteria for the first time. He noted their different shapes; some spherical, others rod-like or spiral. It was once thought that bacteria arose spontaneously from decaying matter, but in the 19th century, Louis Pasteur disproved this, demonstrating that bacteria come from contamination, not from thin air. These microorganisms are essential to understanding life, as they represent the simplest cellular structures capable of growth and reproduction.
Bacteria (incuding blue-green algae) have all the machinery they need to survive, grow, and reproduce. Bacteria come in various shapes, and scientists categorise them based on factors like their form or how they react to certain stains. For instance, some bacteria absorb a dye developed by Christian Gram in 1884, making them "Gram-positive." Others do not, and are labeled "Gram-negative." This difference in staining reflects variations in their cell wall structure, which affects how they interact with different chemicals. Prokaryotic cells are incredibly versatile, capable of living in diverse environments. Some produce their own energy from sunlight or chemicals, while others depend on organic matter for survival. This adaptability makes them vital to ecosystems and essential to life on Earth. On the other hand, eukaryotic cells are far more complex. These cells contain organelles, i.e. specialised structures that carry out distinct tasks. One of the most important of these is the nucleus, which houses the cells genetic material. The nucleus was first identified in 1883 by Robert Brown. It serves as the cells command center, controlling growth, reproduction, and many other vital functions.
The endoplasmic reticulum, another critical organelle, acts like a transport system within the cell, moving materials to where they are needed. It works closely with the Golgi apparatus, which packages and sends proteins and other molecules to their destinations. Together, these organelles ensure that the cell functions efficiently, distributing essential components throughout the cell. Lysosomes and peroxisomes serve as the cell's cleanup crew. Lysosomes break down waste materials and old cell components, while peroxisomes deal with harmful chemicals like peroxides but are also involved in breaking down long chain fatty acids that can be more efficiently utised by the mitochondria. These organelles keep the cell clean and prevent waste from building up. Mitochondria, often referred to as the powerhouses of the cell, generate energy. In plant cells, chloroplasts also play a role by converting sunlight into energy through photosynthesis a trick learned by bacteria (cyano bacteria) some 3 billion years ago. Both organelles are essential for providing the energy needed for the cell to perform its functions. All life on earth is thus directly or indirectly powered by solar radiation.
Cells, despite their small size, are incredibly complex and diverse. Whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, they are the foundation of life, enabling everything from the simplest bacteria to large complex animals (e.g. the blue whale, the larges animal that has ever existed) and plants (e.g. giant redwoods) to exist and thrive. We will get back to how this all happened later.soOoOoOoOoOos
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